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Open-source intelligence

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Open-source intelligence (OSINT) refers to the systematic collection, evaluation, and analysis of publicly available information from open sources to produce actionable intelligence. These sources include, but are not limited to, traditional media (newspapers, radio, television), government publications, academic research, commercial databases, public websites, social media platforms, geospatial data, and technical infrastructure information.

OSINT is employed across a wide range of sectors including national security, law enforcement, corporate intelligence, journalism, cybersecurity, humanitarian aid, and academic research. It supports decision-making by providing timely, relevant, and verified insights derived from legally accessible and non-classified materials.

Unlike other forms of intelligence such as human intelligence (HUMINT), signals intelligence (SIGINT), or imagery intelligence (IMINT), OSINT does not rely on covert or classified means of collection. Instead, it leverages information that is freely accessible to the public, often through digital channels, though physical documents and broadcasts also remain valid sources.

Categories

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OSINT sources can be divided up into six different categories of information flow:[1]

OSINT is distinguished from research in that it applies the process of intelligence to create tailored knowledge supportive of a specific decision by a specific individual or group.[2]

OSINT collection methodologies

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Collecting open-source intelligence is achieved in a variety of different ways,[3] such as:

Definition

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OSINT, broadly defined, involves gathering and analyzing publicly accessible information to produce actionable insights.[4]

The U.S. Department of Homeland Security defines OSINT as intelligence derived from publicly available information, collected and disseminated promptly to address specific intelligence needs.[5]

NATO describes OSINT as intelligence obtained from publicly available information and other unclassified data with limited public distribution or access.[6]

The European Union defines OSINT as the collecting and analyzing information from open sources to generate actionable intelligence, supporting areas like national security, law enforcement, and business intelligence.[7]

The United Nations has also recognized OSINT’s potential, noting its value in monitoring member states’ compliance with international regulations across various sectors, including public health and human rights.[8]

In the private sector, companies like IBM define OSINT as the process of gathering and analyzing publicly available information to assess threats, inform decisions, or answer specific questions. Similarly, cybersecurity firms such as CrowdStrike describe OSINT as the act of collecting and analyzing publicly available data for intelligence purposes.[9]

History

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Seal of the 9/11 Commission

OSINT practices have been documented as early as the mid-19th century in the United States and early 20th century in the United Kingdom.[10]

OSINT in the United States traces its origins to the 1941 creation of the Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service (FBMS), an agency responsible for the monitoring of foreign broadcasts. An example of their work was the correlation of changes in the price of oranges in Paris with successful bombings of railway bridges during World War II.[11]

The Aspin-Brown Commission stated in 1996 that US access to open sources was "severely deficient" and that this should be a "top priority" for both funding and DCI attention.[12]

In July 2004, following the September 11 attacks, the 9/11 Commission recommended the creation of an open-source intelligence agency.[13] In March 2005, the Iraq Intelligence Commission recommended[14] the creation of an open-source directorate at the CIA.

Following these recommendations, in November 2005 the Director of National Intelligence announced the creation of the DNI Open Source Center. The Center was established to collect information available from "the Internet, databases, press, radio, television, video, geospatial data, photos and commercial imagery."[15] In addition to collecting openly available information, it would train analysts to make better use of this information. The center absorbed the CIA's previously existing Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), originally established in 1941, with FBIS head Douglas Naquin named as director of the center.[16] Then, following the events of 9/11 the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act merged FBIS and other research elements into the Office of the Director of National Intelligence creating the Open Source Enterprise.

Furthermore, the private sector has invested in tools which aid in OSINT collection and analysis. Specifically, In-Q-Tel, a Central Intelligence Agency supported venture capital firm in Arlington, VA assisted companies develop web-monitoring and predictive analysis tools.

In December 2005, the Director of National Intelligence appointed Eliot A. Jardines as the Assistant Deputy Director of National Intelligence for Open Source to serve as the Intelligence Community's senior intelligence officer for open source and to provide strategy, guidance and oversight for the National Open Source Enterprise.[17] Mr. Jardines has established the National Open Source Enterprise[18] and authored intelligence community directive 301. In 2008, Mr. Jardines returned to the private sector and was succeeded by Dan Butler who is ADDNI/OS[19] and previously Mr. Jardines' Senior Advisor for Policy.[20]

Tools

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Systematic Software Engineering uses open source intelligence, compiled by [[Janes Information Services]], as part of its intelligence platform.
Open source intelligence may be ingested to battle management systems such as CPCE by Systematic, which uses an open source feed from Janes Information Services.

Open-source intelligence (OSINT) relies on a wide range of tools and platforms to collect, analyze, and validate publicly available information. These tools vary from general-purpose web browsers to specialized software and frameworks designed specifically for open-source investigations.

1. General Purpose Platforms

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The web browser serves as a foundational tool in OSINT workflows, granting access to vast amounts of publicly available data across websites, forums, blogs, and databases. It also enables the use of both open-source and proprietary software tools—either purpose-built for OSINT or adaptable for intelligence-gathering purposes.

2. Specialized OSINT Tools and Frameworks

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A number of dedicated tools and platforms have been developed to streamline the process of gathering and analyzing open-source information. These include:

  • Maltego : A data visualization tool used for link analysis and reconnaissance.
  • Shodan : A search engine for internet-connected devices, often used in cybersecurity research.
  • TheHarvester : A tool used for e-mail harvesting and subdomain enumeration.
  • FOCA (Fingerprinting Organizations with Collected Archives) : Used to extract metadata and find hidden information in documents.
  • Recon-ng : A full-featured web reconnaissance framework written in Python.

The OSINT Framework , an open-source project maintained on GitHub, provides a categorized directory of over 30 major types of OSINT tools, covering areas such as social media investigation, geolocation, domain analysis, and more.[3]

3. Training and Educational Resources

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Given the evolving nature of digital platforms and online tools, continuous learning is essential for effective OSINT practice. Numerous educational organizations, investigative groups, and training institutions offer resources to support skill development in this field. Notable contributors include:

  • Bellingcat : An independent collective known for its open-source investigative journalism.
  • SANS Institute : Offers courses and certifications focused on cybersecurity and digital forensics, including OSINT-related topics.
  • IntelTechniques : Provides training materials and tools for journalists, law enforcement, and researchers.

Books such as Open Source Intelligence Techniques by Michael Bazzell serve as practical guides to navigating the digital landscape, offering curated lists of tools and techniques across multiple domains. However, due to the rapid pace of change in the online environment, the author emphasizes the importance of ongoing study, training, and adaptation to maintain relevance and effectiveness in OSINT operations.[1]

4. Operational Security (OPSEC) Tools

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As OSINT practitioners often conduct sensitive or public investigations, maintaining personal safety and operational security is critical. Analysts may employ various tools to protect their identity and digital footprint. Ryan Fedasiuk, an analyst at the Center for Security and Emerging Technology, recommends several OPSEC best practices and tools, including:

  • Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
  • Cached webpage services (e.g., Google Cache, Wayback Machine)
  • Digital archive services
  • URL and file scanners (e.g., VirusTotal)
  • Browser sandbox applications
  • Antivirus software

These tools help reduce exposure to potential threats when conducting online investigations, especially when researching adversarial or high-risk subjects.[2]

5. Integration with Larger Systems

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In institutional settings, OSINT is often integrated into broader command and control systems. For example, CPCE (Command Post Communications Environment) by Systematic incorporates open-source feeds such as those provided by Jane’s Information Services , enabling real-time intelligence integration into military and defense operations.

Risks for practitioners

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One of the primary challenges in open-source intelligence (OSINT) is the sheer volume of publicly available information, often referred to as the "information explosion." The exponential growth of digital content across news platforms, social media, forums, blogs, and official publications presents significant difficulties for analysts attempting to identify, verify, and contextualize relevant data.

The rapid pace at which new information is generated often outstrips the capacity of analysts to process and evaluate it effectively. This can lead to difficulties in distinguishing reliable sources from misinformation or disinformation, and in prioritizing intelligence that is both timely and actionable.

To mitigate these challenges, some organizations have explored the use of automated tools, machine learning algorithms, and crowdsourcing techniques. While large-scale automation remains a developing field, limited efforts involving amateur or citizen analysts have occasionally contributed to the filtering and categorization of open-source data—though such methods are generally considered supplementary rather than definitive.

While OSINT involves only legally accessible, publicly available information, the distinction between lawful research and illegal activity becomes critical when individuals or entities misuse open-source practices.

In most jurisdictions, the unauthorized collection and transmission of sensitive information to a foreign government or intelligence agency—even if obtained from public sources—can constitute espionage , particularly if it involves strategic, military, or national security-related data. Espionage of this nature, distinct from treason (which typically involves betrayal of one’s own state), has historically been employed by states as a tool of diplomacy, warfare, and influence.

It is important to note that while OSINT itself is a legitimate and transparent discipline, its misuse—particularly when combined with covert intent or malicious purpose—can cross into legally and ethically prohibited territory. Therefore, responsible OSINT practitioners emphasize adherence to legal standards, ethical guidelines, and operational security best practices.

Professional associations and certifications

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As open-source intelligence (OSINT) has grown in prominence across government, military, corporate, and journalistic sectors, a number of professional associations and certification programs have emerged to support practitioners, standardize methodologies, and promote ethical conduct.

1. The OSINT Foundation

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The OSINT Foundation is a U.S.-based professional association dedicated to advancing the practice of open-source intelligence within the U.S. Intelligence Community and beyond. Open exclusively to U.S. citizens, the organization aims to elevate the visibility and professionalism of OSINT as a formal intelligence discipline. It serves as a platform for knowledge sharing, networking, and advocacy among current and aspiring OSINT practitioners.

2. OSMOSIS and the Open-Source Certified (OSC) Designation

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OSMOSIS , an offshoot of the Hetherington Group—a private investigation and corporate intelligence firm—offers training programs and conferences that lead to the Open-Source Certified (OSC) designation. The OSC program was developed to help formalize and standardize professional OSINT practices.

According to the program’s guidelines, candidates must fulfill specific prerequisites and pass a 100-question examination to demonstrate proficiency in open-source research and analysis. The certification emphasizes legal compliance, ethical behavior, and technical competence in gathering and interpreting publicly available information.

3. IntelTechniques and the OSIP Certification

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IntelTechniques , a provider of investigative and OSINT training, offers the Open Source Intelligence Professional (OSIP) certification. The program is designed to test participants' ability to produce actionable intelligence using real-world scenarios and standardized evaluation criteria.

In addition to structured courses, IntelTechniques fosters a moderated online community where professionals can exchange insights on best practices, tools, and methodologies. While the OSIP certification is optional, participation in the training itself helps individuals develop and refine their OSINT skills for use in law enforcement, journalism, cybersecurity, and corporate investigations.

4. Other Training Providers and Communities

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Beyond formal certifications, several organizations offer specialized OSINT training and platforms for professional development:

  • Bellingcat , an independent collective known for its open-source investigative journalism, provides public training sessions and resources for journalists, researchers, and activists.
  • Independent educators and trainers also contribute to the field through blogs, podcasts, YouTube channels, and social media communities focused on OSINT tradecraft.

These informal and semi-formal learning environments play a vital role in expanding access to OSINT education and fostering global collaboration among practitioners.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Richelson, Jeffrey (2016). The US Intelligence Community. Avalon. ISBN 978-0813349183.
  2. ^ "Spy Agencies Turn to Newspapers, NPR, and Wikipedia for Information: The intelligence community is learning to value 'open-source' information". Archived from the original on 2012-10-23. Retrieved 2008-09-15.
  3. ^ Leos, Devan (2023-02-28). "Thinking Like a Spy: How Open Source Intelligence Can Give You a Competitive Advantage". Entrepreneur. Retrieved 2023-11-08.
  4. ^ "What is OSINT (Open-Source Intelligence?) | SANS Institute". SANS Institute. Retrieved 2025-02-18.
  5. ^ Ethical Frameworks in Open Source Intelligence. (Report) (2022). Part of the 2022 Public Private Partnership Analytic Exchange Program. Washington, DC: US Department of Homeland Security.
  6. ^ NATO OSINT Handbook V 1.2. NATO. 2001-11-01.
  7. ^ "OSINT: Open-source intelligence". European Union Data. 2022-05-02. Retrieved 2025-02-18.
  8. ^ Bochert, Florian (2021-11-19). "OSINT – The Untapped Treasure Trove of United Nations Organizations". Harvard International Review. Retrieved 2025-02-18.
  9. ^ Baker, Kurt (2025-01-17). "What is OSINT Open Source Intelligence? | CrowdStrike". Crowdstrike. Retrieved 2025-02-18.
  10. ^ Block, Ludo (2023). "The long history of OSINT". Journal of Intelligence History. 23 (2): 95–109. doi:10.1080/16161262.2023.2224091. hdl:1887/3731669. ISSN 1616-1262.
  11. ^ Bornn, D Marshall (9 Jan 2013). "Service members, civilians learn to harness power of 'Open Source' information". www.army.mil. Archived from the original on 9 December 2017. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
  12. ^ Lowenthal, Mark; Clark, Robert (2015). The Five Disciplines of Intelligence Collection. CQ Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-1483381114.
  13. ^ See page 413 of the 9-11 Commission Report (pdf) Archived 2007-07-05 at the Wayback Machine.
  14. ^ McLaughlin, Michael (June 2012). "Using open source intelligence for cybersecurity intelligence". ComputerWeekly.com. Archived from the original on 2018-06-29. Retrieved 2018-06-29.
  15. ^ Office of the Director of National Intelligence. "ODNI Announces Establishment of Open Source Center Archived 2006-06-23 at the Wayback Machine". Press release, 8 November 2005.
  16. ^ Ensor, David. "The Situation Report: Open source intelligence center Archived 2007-03-25 at the Wayback Machine". CNN, 8 November 2005.
  17. ^ Office of the Director of National Intelligence "ODNI Senior Leadership Announcement Archived 2006-06-23 at the Wayback Machine". Press release, 7 December 2005.
  18. ^ "National Open Source Entreprise Vision Statement" Archived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine May 2006
  19. ^ DNI Open Source Conference 2008 "Decision Advantage" agenda, Office of the Director of National Intelligence, July 2008. Archived 2010-04-17 at the Wayback Machine
  20. ^ DNI Open Source Conference 2007 "Expanding the Horizons" agenda, Office of the Director of National Intelligence, July 2007. Archived 2008-08-01 at the Wayback Machine

Further reading

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Scientific publications

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